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Roman Legions
THE ARMS AND ORGANIZATION OF THE ROMAN LEGIONS
By Arthur E. Noot, 1993
The legions represented
the real power that was once ancient Rome, and were the epitome of Roman might. The intention here is to provide an abbreviated
overview of that power, recognizing that it is barely possible to do even that within the limitations of this paper.
There
exists a great deal of literature on the subject, some easily available and some more obscure and difficult to obtain. The
present writer has developed his information from a great number of sources, which are listed in the bibliography at the end
of this paper.
THE LEGIONARY
A life-sized model of a legionary
can be found in the Grovsenor Museum in Chester, England. A legionarys equipment was much the same throughout the empire.
His offensive weapons included the short sword, or gladius, which was about two feet long with a well-tempered double-edged
blade. This is characteristic of a confident, attacking soldier. It is interesting to observe that as the empire went over
to the defensive, the long sword (spatha) became widely used. Additionally, the legionary carried a dagger, which was probably
used as a knife and as a close-in weapon.
The javelin, or pilum, had a killing range of about 30 yards. It was seven
feet long, with an iron head two feet long. Only the point (about three to ten inches) was tempered. The shank was left in
a soft iron state except for the lower end socket used to attach the wooden shaft. Two pilum were carried on the march, with
stacks of them available in the camp or fortress.
A wooden pilum, six feet long, was essentially a defensive weapon.
It was pointed at both ends, and had a central handgrip. It was probably used to thrust at an enemy from the ramparts, as
a quarterstaff, and as a picket fence.
The legionarys body armor was well illustrated on the base of the Antonine
Column. The most common form in the time of Trajan was lorica segmentata. This consisted of two parts - a flexible system
of overlapping metal strips and two pairs of plates over the chest and back. The body portion of strips was held together
by leather thongs at the back and fastened at the front with hooks and laces or, in some cases, straps and buckles. The upper
half of the lorica consisted of pairs of back and front plates, as well as overlapping hinged shoulder strips falling over
the upper part of the arms. There were two other known types of armor in the forms of mail - one made of interlocking rings
and the other of small metal scales sewn in overlapping rows onto a jerkin.
The lower part of the body was protected
by the cinguum militare, a wide belt with a sporran-like attachment. This was separate from the harness, which held the sword
and dagger in position. Both the belt and sporran were heavily studded with metal, and the latter consisted of leather strips,
which swung between the legs or were looped up to the belt as shown on Trajans column.
The most important piece of
equipment in the infantry was the boot. Legionaries had a heavy, thick-soled sandal (caliga) with at least four thickness
of leather in the sole, which was heavily studded with hollow-headed hob nails. The sandal was fastened to the foot by thongs
tied at the ankle. The effect was one of comfort, coolness, flexibility, and durability.
The shield (scutum) was an
important item of defensive equipment. It was rectangular, and curved to fit the body - contrasting with the oval variety
used by the auxiliaries. It was made of leather or plywood bound at the edges with metal strips. The boss in the center (umbo)
was hollow, and on the inside was fixed the handgrip. A leather strap was also fitted to the inside of the shield for the
forearm, and another to enable it to be slung from the left shoulder.
Several types of helmets (galea) are known.
Most have traces of plume holders. However, the campaign scenes on Trajans column make it clear that plumes were only worn
on parade.
Below all this equipment the soldier wore a woolen tunic reaching to his knees. Next to his skin he had
a linen undergarment, which was probably washed and changed regularly since a high standard of personal hygiene was enforced.
Every soldier had a thick woolen cloak (sagum), probably brown in color.
TERMS OF SERVICE
AND PAY
The conditions of service varied substantially from period to period during the empire. Augustus
fixed the legionarys service at 16 successive years, plus four years as a veteran with exemption from fatigues. Upon honorable
discharge, the veteran received a grant of land in one of the colonies or chartered towns established for this purpose. By
AD 6, the period of service was extended to 20 years, with a grant of money on discharge. The period as a veteran was extended
to five years. The Flavian emperors modified this again, fixing the length of service at 25 years, with discharges made every
other year.
The pay for the legionary under Augustus was 300 sesterces three times each year. Domitian increased the
yearly total to 1200 sesterces and made quarterly payments. A "lump" payment was made when a new emperor was enthroned, with
about one-half of the amount going into "savings. The following comparison briefly sketches known payment levels:
Comparison
in Denarii
AUGUSTUS DOMITIAN
"Private" 225 300
Centurian 3750 5000
Webster points
out that it is difficult to interpret these amounts in modern terms. There is evidence that the legionary could live reasonably
well on two-thirds of his pay. Using corn as a standard, 60 modii would apparently keep him for a year, and a modius usually
cost one denarius. Thus, he had sufficient corn per week for just over a days pay, or under Domitian, a fifth of this pay
would have gone in corn.
ORGANIZATION OF THE LEGION
Under Nero
there were 28 legions. The number gradually increased over the years. Each Legion had a name, a number, and its own badge.
In addition, there were the Praetorian cohorts, originally the emperors personal bodyguard, but expanded into an elite corps.
By the late 3rd Century, the whole emphasis of the army was moving away from old concepts. Cavalry became increasingly important.
To limit the power of any one field commander bent on mutiny, the size of the legion was decreased to only 1,000 men. Constantine
abolished the Praetorians, thereby eliminating a dangerous element in palace intrigues.
After the disastrous defeat
at the battle of Adrianopel in AD 378, the use of mounted troops increased at a phenomenal rate. By the end of the 4th Century,
mounted troops comprised an estimated three quarters of the men under arms.
In the early Republic, the legion of the
Roman army was a self-contained formation equivalent to a complete army in itself. The smallest unit was the contubernium,
a tent party of eight men sharing a packhorse. Ten such groups formed a company, or centuria, commanded by a centurian. This
was originally 100 men, but normally numbered 80. Six such companies, grouped in three pairs, formed a cohort. Ten cohorts
made up a legion.
Organizationally, we are told that the first cohort was increased to twice the size of the others,
having five centuries - a total of 800 men picked for their physiuqe and fighting qualities. Total strength was 6,000, including
5300 infantry and 120 mounted troops. The commander (legatus) was usually a Senator who had served as Praetor, roughly thirty
years of age. His was a three year appointment. There were six military tribunes under the legatus - five staff officers in
charge of detachments and one young man of high birth intended for a Senatorial career.
The camp prefect was a senior
professional officer (praefectus castorum) responsible for training, internal organization, and equipment. Typically, he had
thirty or more years experience.
The backbone of the legion was the centurians. There were sixty to each legion, each
responsible for implementing training, discipline, and generally leading the companies they commanded. There were numerous
other specialties, including standard bearers, priests, musicians, and orderlies.
WEAPONS
The legions had two types of spring operated artillery. A light field gun (carrobalista) was mounted on a small
cart. Ten men operated the weapon. One such piece was issued to each century. This means that about sixty field guns of this
type could lay down a barrage of arrows or bolts nine inches long (often tarred & set ablaze). In addition, one large
catapult (onager) was issued for each cohort. This was a very powerful instrument, throwing large boulders weighing two hundred-weights
for four or five hundred yards. Ten such weapons were present in each legion.
THE LEGIONARY
FORTRESS
The legion occupied either a marching camp or a permanent fortress, according to the circumstances.
Marching camps were set up during campaigns. The whole army group camped together - auxiliaries and legionaries. Some of the
marching camps covered a large area. The camp in Raedykes, Scotland, is about 114 acres. The only remains of these camps tend
to be the defenses, consisting of a turf rampart, five or six feet high, behind a ditch. When it became necessary to occupy
hostile territory during winter, or after a successful campaign, forts were built at strategic river crossings and joined
together by a road system. Forts were usually placed about a days march apart and built for single units or detachments. Defenses,
of course, were stronger than the marching camp, and included gates and towers. All known constructions were of timber, except
for the bathhouse. Early forts varied considerably in design. However, during the Flavian period, fort plans became greatly
standardized: level ground was selected and the fort laid out in the form of a rectangle with rounded corners. In the center
was the headquarters building. The main road crossed in front of this building, joined by another at the center, forming a
"T" junction. The two roads led to three of the gates, and the fourth gave access to the rear of the fort.
Legionary
fortresses were built along the same lines, but were much larger and more elaborate. They covered fifty to sixty acres, ten
times the size of the smaller auxiliary forts. At the beginning of the second century, all timber forts were taken down and
replaced with stone structures on order of the emperor Trajan. The turf rampars received stone-faced walls.
LEGIONARY COINS
It is believed that all legionary coins have one thing in common: they
were all the product of times of unrest and/or civil war. Their main function was probably one of propaganda.
The
first issue was likely that of Mark Antony, just before the Battle of Actium. The designs were almost identical except for
the number of the legion identified. Those that gave the name of the legion in addition are considered very rare. Twenty-three
legions are identified with some coins numbered XXIV to XXX in existence, but are considered questionable.
Carausius
(ca. AD287) issued the last coins of this type as antoniniani. There is evidently a legionary coin recorded for Allectus,
but it is barbarous and considered by some to be most doubtful. The formalized coin types of the fourth century prevented
further issues.
THE SUCCESS OF THE LEGION
Most writers agree that
the success of the legions was primarily due to the stiff discipline imposed on every rank. Discipline is the root of morale
- a fact not often appreciated by those in the ranks. It is obtained by personal smartness and unit drill. There is little
doubt that high standards were laid down in the legions. Marching, arms drill, weapons training, and tactical exercises were
all strenuously undertaken.
Bibliography:
Brown, Augustus, LEGIONARY
COINS, Attic Books, Ltd., NY, 1967
Millar, Fergus, THE EMPEROR IN THE ROMAN WORLD Cornell Press, NY 1977
Royal
Numismatic Society, NUMISMATIC CHRONICLE, NY 1977
Webster, Graham, THE ROMAN ARMY, Grovsnor Museum, Chester, England,
19973
Williamson, G.A. THE WORLD OF JOSEPHUS, Secker & Warburg, London, 1964
It is very difficult for
a writer to identify where "original" thought begins and where his sources end. I take the position here and elsewhere that
there is very little "original" work & much interpretation. The following further reading is highly recommended:
Roman
sources: Caesar (Gallic Wars, etc.), Josephus (Wars of the Jews), and Arrian (Tactics) are exceptional. You can also find
Polybius (History of the Romans), Tacitus (Annals, Histories, and Agricola), Ammianus Marcellinus, and Frontius (Stratagems).
Specific military works include "Instituta Rei Militaris" by Vegetius (abridged version in "Roots of Strategy" ed. T.R. Phillips,
1943 and an anonymous work, De Munitionibus Castrorum - the only edition Im aware of being that of Von Domaszewski, Leipzig,
1887. A fine pictorial account is Trajans column in Rome.
Other related works are:
Parker, H.M.D., THE ROMAN LEGIONS, repr. 1958;
Webster, Graham, THE ROMAN IMPERIAL ARMY, 1968
For
original inscriptions and papyri:
Collingwood, R.G., and Wright, R.P., THE ROMAN INSCRIPTIONS OF BRITAIN, I., 1965;
Fink, R. O., ROMAN MILITARY RECORDS ON PAPYRUS, 1971;
Martin, V., Bell, H.I., Turner, E.G., and van Berchem,
D., THE ABINNAEUS ARCHIVE, 1962.
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